Huang et al. showed that peripheral tolerance induction requires activation, proliferation and an effector phase 14. Here, we show that i.n. treatment with all three MBP Ac1–9 position analogs induces CD4+ T-cell activation and proliferation in an adoptive transfer model in vivo. Furthermore, we have recently demonstrated that i.n. MBP Ac1–9[4Y] treatment induced IL-10 Treg are of Th1 origin 9, as alluded to here by the ability of CD4+ T cells from i.n. MBP Ac1–9[4Y]-treated mice to co-secrete IFN-γ and IL-10 at

the single cell level. This HIF inhibitor is in direct contrast to the IL-10-secreting T cells generated by treatment with the random amino acid copolymer poly (F,Y,A,K,)n, which also secrete IL-4 and are, therefore, likely of the Th2 lineage 15, 16. Thus, i.n. administration of MBP Ac1–9 does not result in a Th1 to Th2 immune deviation, which, in some cases, can lead to disease exacerbation 17. Instead, the potentially pathogenic Th1 response is driven in a controlled manner by i.n. peptide treatment towards IL-10 secretion. This process mimics chronic infections with intracellular pathogens, where IL-10 plays a role in protecting

against excessive inflammation-associated pathology 18. In fact, it is now clear that all known Th cell subsets, including Th1 19, Th2 20, Th17 21–23 and Th9 cells 24 are able to secrete IL-10 regardless of their commitment Histone Acetyltransferase inhibitor to a given lineage, thus granting them with suppressive activity. Of note, Saraiva et al. have shown recently that both high levels of TCR ligation and/or repeated TCR triggering leads to enhanced IL-10 production

by Th1 cells in vitro25. Although high affinity peptide analogs have also been implicated in other murine models of autoimmune diseases such as collagen Methocarbamol induced arthritis 26, insulin-dependent diabetes 27, experimental myasthenia gravis 28 or lupus 29, their exact mode of action remains unclear. Our data demonstrate that high signal strength is required for effective induction of IL-10 secretion by CD4+ T cells. Inducing IL-10 is important for regulating Th1 responses, thus ensuring tolerance in the face of epitope spreading, which is especially relevant to the development of therapeutic vaccines for autoimmune diseases. Mice were bred and maintained under specific pathogen-free conditions. B10.PL mice were obtained from The Jackson Laboratory. Tg4 TCR Tg mice were described previously 3 and backcrossed onto the B10.PL (H2u) background. All experiments were carried out in accordance with a UK Home Office Project License and animal welfare codes directed by the University of Bristol ethical review committee.

Conclusion:β-ARs were expressed in vimentin-positive ICs of the RG 7204 human urinary bladder. As for β2- and β3-AR, there was no gender-related difference or age-related correlation in urothelium, ICs and detrusor muscles. In the human urinary bladder, β-ARs expressed in ICs may play a role in bladder physiology. “
“Depression and anxiety are common mental illnesses. It is recognized that depression/anxiety causes physical changes, including insomnia, anorexia, and bladder dysfunction. We aimed to delineate bladder dysfunction in patients with depression/anxiety by reviewing the literature. We performed a systematic review

of the literature to identify the frequency, lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS), urodynamic findings, putative underlying pathology, and management of bladder dysfunction in patients with depression/anxiety. From a recent survey of a depression cohort (at a psychiatry clinic), the frequency of bladder dysfunction in depression is lower (up to 25.9%) than that in Parkinson’s disease (up to 75%) and stroke (up to 55%), whereas it is significantly higher BI 6727 chemical structure than that in

age-matched controls (around 10%). In both the depression cohort and the psychogenic bladder dysfunction cohort (at a urology clinic), the most common LUTS was overactive bladder (OAB), followed by difficult urination and infrequent voiding. Compared with severe LUTS, urodynamic findings were dissociated; i.e. urodynamic findings were normal except for increased bladder sensation without detrusor overactivity for OAB (50% of all patients), followed by underactive detrusor without post-void residual for difficult urination. The effectiveness of serotonergic or anti-cholinergic medication

for ameliorating OAB in the patients awaits further study. In conclusion, although the frequency of LUTS among the depression cohort is not elevated, Galactosylceramidase depression/anxiety is obviously a risk factor for OAB. This finding presumably reflects that the bladder is under emotional control. Amelioration of bladder dysfunction is an important target in treating patients with depression/anxiety. Major depression is a common mental illness with a prevalence of around 6% of the general population. It is characterized by feelings of sadness and despair, and causes significant morbidity.[1] Anxiety and stress-related disorders are also common, with estimations of their prevalence in the general population ranging from 2% to 20%. These disorders are characterized by excessive worry and irritability[2] mixed with symptoms of depression. It is well recognized that depression/anxiety causes not only mental but also physical changes. Physical changes associated with depression/anxiety include insomnia,[1] anorexia,[2] tachycardia,[3] sexual/erectile dysfunction,[4-6] bowel dysfunction,[7] and bladder dysfunction (mostly an overactive bladder [OAB, urinary urgency and frequency with/without urinary incontinence]).

A 50 bp or 200 bp DNA ladder marker (TaKaRa) was included in all gels to determine the size of the amplified DNA fragments. The selected VNTR loci and their characteristics are shown in Table 2. The forward primers for the PCR were labeled at the 5′ end with either FAM or HEX or TAMRA. The reverse primers were synthesized unlabelled (Table 2) (20–22). The final protocol selleck compound consisted of three multiplex PCR. M1 contained 10 pmol TR1, 8 pmol TR3, 6 pmol TR5, and 8 pmol TR6 of the primer sets;

M2 contained 2.5 pmol TR2, 10 pmol TR7 and 15 pmol TR9 of the primer sets. M3 contained 10 pmol TR4 and 10 pmol TR8 of the primer-sets. M1 and M3 were performed according to standard PCR cycling as above. For M2, the initial denaturation at 95°C for 10 min was followed by 35 cycles: denaturation at 95°C for 1 min, 58°C for 40 s, and 72°C for 2 min; and a final extension of 10 min at 72°C. PCR fragments from M1 and M2 were analyzed using multicolored capillary electrophoresis (20–22). The amplicons of M1 and M2 were diluted in water to 1:120. After denaturation by heating, the amplicons were separated by capillary electrophoresis on an ABI 3730xl genetic analyzer with a GeneScan 500 LIZ size standard (Applied Biosystems, Tokyo,

Japan). Data were collected and the lengths of the amplicons determined according to color and size using GeneMapper software v. 4.0 (Applied Biosystems). Because the fragments from M3 PCR amplification are larger learn more than 500 bp (at the upper limitation for the GeneScan 500 LIZ size marker), the PCR fragments from M3 were resolved using horizontal agarose gel electrophoresis; and the sizes of the PCR amplification were deduced by visual inspection using a flanking reference DNA ladder. Whereas, because the unit sizes of the repeat TR8 and TR4 were 231 bp and 90 bp, respectively, they were determined directly. All of the tandem repeat loci patterns generated from TRF and the repeat copy numbers (alleles) of GZ1, P1/7, SC84 and 89/1591 were rounded to the nearest whole numbers. The number of repeat units for the nine VNTR loci and the calculated sizes of amplicons for S.

suis strains P1/7, SC84 and GZ1 were used as the standards to infer the number of repeat units HSP90 for each locus in the isolates tested. All amplicons of different lengths in each locus were subjected to nucleotide sequence determination to verify the repeat sequence and the number of repeat units (20, 23). The primers (without the dye label) used for nucleotide sequence determination were the same as the primer sets used for PCR amplification. In those instances where no amplification was observed at a particular locus despite multiple attempts, the allele was denoted as “0”, whereas a decimal allele was designated to describe a locus allele that contained both flanking sequences but non-whole number repeat units. In each strain, the sequence of TR9 was also determined in both directions to confirm the results of the capillary electrophoresis.

Myllykangas, I.-L. Notkola, T. Polvikoski, R. Sulkava, H. Kalimo and A. Paetau (2012) Neuropathology and Applied Neurobiology38, 329–336 Prevalence and severity of cerebral amyloid angiopathy: a population-based

study on very elderly Finns (Vantaa 85+) Background: Cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) is frequent in patients with Alzheimer’s disease while its prevalence in different populations is variable. We investigated the prevalence and severity of CAA in a very elderly Finnish population. Methods: Neuropathological investigation was performed on 306 subjects from the population-based Vantaa 85+ Study (253 women, 53 men, mean age at death 92.3 years). The presence of CAA was analysed in six brain regions by using Congo red and immunohistochemistry with an antibody against amyloid beta peptide. The severity of CAA was assessed by counting the percentage of the CAA-positive blood vessels. Results: In total, 69.6% of the participants ABT-263 price (170 women, 43 men) had CAA, with median severity of 1.0%, inter-quartile range (IQR) 0–5.4% and range 0–72.7%. CAA was more prevalent (81.1% vs. 67.2%; P = 0.046)

CHIR-99021 cost and severe (median 2.7%, IQR 0.4–7.5%, range 0–72.7%) in the men than in the women (median 1.0%, IQR 0–4.6%, range 0–52.8%; P = 0.004). Parietal lobe showed the highest prevalence (57.8%) whereas the severity was highest (median 1.0%, IQR 0–6.0%, range 0–77%) in the frontal lobe. Prevalence of CAA in the six regions was variable, but the severity indices between those regions correlated highly (P < 0.001 for all regions). Meningeal CAA was more prevalent (69.5%) Idoxuridine than cortical (59.3%; P < 0.001). Conclusion: CAA was highly prevalent, albeit mild, in the very old. The prevalence and severity

of CAA were found to be highest in the frontal and parietal lobes respectively – independent of the staining method used (Congo red or amyloid beta peptide). “
“The paired box gene 8 (PAX8) plays crucial roles in organ patterning and cellular differentiation during development and tumorigenesis. While its function is partly understood in vertebrate development, there is poor data concerning human CNS development and brain tumors. We investigated developing human (n=19) and mouse (n=3) brains as well as medulloblastomas (n=113) for PAX8 expression by immunohistochemistry. Human medulloblastoma cell lines were assessed for PAX8 expression using PCR and immunoblotting and analysed for growth and migration following PAX8 knockdown by siRNA. PAX8 protein expression was associated with germinal layers in human and murine forebrain and hindbrain development. PAX8 expression significantly decreased over time in the external granule cell layer, but increased in the internal granule cell layer. In medulloblastoma (MB) subtypes we observed an association of PAX8 expression with SHH (sonic hedgehog) and WNT subtypes but not with group 3 and 4 MBs. Beyond that, we detected high PAX8 levels in desmoplastic MB subtypes.

Other indirect evidence also supports the concept that the in vivo effect of insulin is determined, at least in part, by insulin’s own effect to reach metabolically active tissues by changing local blood flow distribution

patterns. Recently, the effects of systemic insulin infusion on transport and distribution kinetics of the extracellular marker, [14C]inulin, were studied in an animal model that allowed access to hindlimb lymph, a surrogate for interstitial fluid [27]. Insulin, at physiological concentrations, augments the access of the labeled inulin to insulin-sensitive tissues. In addition, access of macromolecules to insulin-sensitive tissues is impaired during diet-induced insulin resistance [26]. The presented data suggest that insulin redirects blood flow from non-nutritive vessels to nutritive capillary beds, resulting in an increased and more homogeneous overall capillary GSI-IX concentration perfusion termed “functional capillary recruitment.” The latter would enhance the access of insulin and glucose to a greater mass of muscle for metabolism. Consistent with such a mechanism in humans, insulin increases microvascular blood volume as measured with CEU or positron emission tomography, and concomitantly enhances the distribution

volume of glucose in human muscle [6,7,14]. Subsequently, capillary recruitment selleck chemicals was reported in the forearm of healthy humans following a mixed meal and was found to follow closely the time-dependent rise in plasma insulin [112]. In addition, insulin-mediated microvascular recruitment in the forearm was shown to be impaired in obese women when they were exposed to a physiological insulin clamp [16]. By directly visualizing capillaries in human skin, it has been demonstrated that systemic hyperinsulinemia is capable of increasing the number of perfused capillaries [22,100]. Comparable to insulin-mediated microvascular recruitment in the forearm [16], the action of insulin on capillary recruitment is impaired in obese subjects [21,22]. Further insight

into the complex relationships among vasodilatation, blood flow velocity, and capillary recruitment was gained through measurement of the capillary permeability-surface area PS for glucose and insulin. PS for a substance describes its capacity to reach the interstitial fluid. This depends on the permeability and the capillary surface PRKACG area, of which the latter in turn partly depends on the amount of perfused capillaries. A recent investigation employing direct measurements of muscle capillary permeability showed that PS for glucose increased after an oral glucose load, and a further increase was demonstrated during an insulin infusion [38]. Importantly, the increase of PS was exerted without any concomitant change in total blood flow. It was concluded that the insulin-mediated increase in PS seen after oral glucose is important for the glucose uptake rate in normal muscle [38].

fumigatus and Aspergillus terreus, eight sputum samples were collected between 22 November 2007 to 16 February 2010, and no Scedosporium was detected by culture. Likewise, for patient 14 (sample 26), 37 samples were collected between 4 July 2007 and 29 May 2009. Mycological analysis gave strictly the same results for almost all these samples,

with an exclusive growth of Candida albicans. Mycological analysis of 21 sputum samples and three broncho-alveolar fluids collected between 3 January 2007 and 29 May 2009 from patient 10 (sample 21 in this study) revealed a chronic colonisation of the airways by C. albicans, sometimes associated with Candida dubliniensis or A. fumigatus, but Scedosporium species were never detected. In addition, www.selleckchem.com/products/azd9291.html two consecutive samples from seven CF patients were analysed. For one of these patients (patient 24), PCR-RLB yielded identical results for the two samples, with a positive signal with

the P. apiosperma-specific probe, and mycological analysis of the second sample (sample 93 collected on 15/12/2008) permitted the recovery of this fungus. This suggests a lack of sensitivity of culturing for the first sample (sample 150 collected on 16/10/2007). Discrepant results between the two successive samples were obtained for the six other patients, with a PCR-negative signal for one of the samples in three patients (patients 2, 21 and patient 29) or with positive signals with different species-specific probes between the two samples in the other three cases (patients 19, 22 and 25). Several molecular methods Selleckchem Small molecule library targeting the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region have been described, but with insufficient resolution to differentiate all clinical species of the P. apiosperma/P. boydii complex. The fragment BT2 of the β-tubulin gene provided more information than

ITS as a target for the identification of Scedosporium species.17,22 We chose the RLB format, given the advantages of low cost and the simultaneous analysis of multiple specimens against multiple probes. The assay analyses up to 43 specimens in a single run and the membrane can be reused up to 20 times without loss of signal. The PCR-RLB assay was able to identify Clostridium perfringens alpha toxin five species except S. dehoogii. The latter species has not been proven to have clinical relevance, and thus PCR-RLB is sufficient for use in clinical diagnostics. Although a single amplification PCR round was sufficient for DNA extracted from cultures, a second PCR format maximises detection limits. Two PCR reactions might carry a higher risk of cross contamination due to the amplification of contamination from e.g., Scedosporium DNA contaminated tubes, sampling equipment (bronchoscope), PCR water or reagents; however, it made it possible to detect DNA extracted directly from clinical specimens. Fifty-nine sputum samples were analysed using methods dedicated to the selective isolation of Scedosporium species; five samples (8.5%) proved to be positive.

In development of the vertebrate hindbrain, segmentation of the neuroepithelium into rhombomeres is an early developmental step which provides a framework for correct neural connectivity [108] and rhombomere boundaries are associated with CSPG expression [109]. Within the cranial mesenchyme the correct rhombomeric projection of sensory trigeminal and facial/acoustic ganglia axons is thought to depend on such CSPG boundaries [110]. Additionally, commissural projections of vestibular nuclei neurones are regulated by CSPGs, where CS moieties have been shown to control guidance of pioneer axons, fasciculation and timing of axon arrival at the contralateral target [111]. In the visual

system CS-GAGs are implicated in extrinsic regulation of the divergence of retinal axons at the optic chiasm

selleck chemicals llc midline (a developmental step which imparts binocular vision) [112] as well as repelling axons to confer retinal cell topography [113–115]. CSPGs in the developing CNS also act to modulate the properties of other guidance cues. The transmembrane protein semaphorin 5A (Sema5A) exerts proteoglycan-dependent signalling. Chondroitin sulphate/heparin sulphate-GAGs bind to thrombospondin repeats within Sema5a, switching it from an attractive to a repellent molecule to guide formation of the fasciculus retroflexus, a diencephalon fibre tract associated with limbic Everolimus cost function [116]. During postnatal development, the composition of the ECM gradually matures as neuronal circuitry approaches its adult form. Stabilization of connectivity is prefixed by a ‘critical period’ in which circuits are sensitive to experience-dependent plasticity. Ocular dominance plasticity is a classic system in which this has received much attention. Monocular deprivation during the critical period, but not in the

adult, causes cortical neurones to shift in coding preference to the nondeprived eye [117,118]. Studying the mechanisms by which the critical period is initiated and terminated is informative to approaches aiming to reactivate plasticity to promote repair following injury. The rate at which fast-spiking parvalbumin positive cortical interneurones mature (a process delayed by dark-rearing from birth) and release Carnitine dehydrogenase the neurotransmitter GABA is known to contribute to the onset of the critical period. The ECM also undergoes significant changes as the critical period closes. PNN formation coincides with critical period termination and attenuating PNN structure results in persistent ocular dominance plasticity in Ctrl1−/− mice [38]. Accordingly, as the critical period closes there is an upregulation of Ctrl1, aggrecan and HA [119]. CSPG expression is also associated with closure of the critical period [120]. Indeed dark rearing from birth, which extends the critical period, is associated with delayed expression of PNN CSPGs [121].

For example, it has been shown that sepsis is sometimes associated with neutropenia,[36] accompanied by peripheral blood and BM myeloid progenitor cell mobilization and differentiation.[37] In the case of eosinophils, there Vismodegib research buy is a documented case of cryptococcal infection combined with sepsis, resulting in eosinophilia in a healthy individual.[38] Likewise, LPS has been shown to influence haematopoietic

dynamics through direct effects on progenitor cells, including rapid myeloid differentiation.[13] Increased Eo/B CFU production after LPS stimulation of CB CD34+ cells may represent a mechanism through which haematopoietic progenitor cells[15, 37] or their resulting mature progeny[39] can help to respond to invading bacterial species during acute infections. These mechanisms may also be operative in allergic (eosinophilic/basophilic) inflammation. Our data are interesting in the context find more of the type of immune response that can be generated in response to bacterial agents. Of note, IL-5 is an eosinophil-specific inducing cytokine,[40] whereas GM-CSF-responsive progenitors represent earlier stages of lineage commitment and therefore contribute to the development of several myeloid cells[37] including Eo/B cells, macrophages and

neutrophils. Therefore, the apparent skewing of the Eo/B progenitor population towards GM-CSF-responsive (Fig 1a), as opposed to IL-5-responsive, lineages (Fig 1b), with noted increases in GM CFU (data not shown), suggests that the progenitor response to LPS involves production of multi-cellular Progesterone (Eo/B[39] and GM[37]) inflammatory responses to pathogens or allergens. Although relatively high doses of LPS were used in the ex vivo culture system, this must be tempered by knowledge of the bio-availability of LPS in vivo. Physiologically, the fetus is exposed in vivo to LPS, because Gram-negative bacteria and associated LPS can be isolated from amniotic fluid in median concentrations of 0·05 μg/ml.[41] Though the minimal concentration of biologically

active LPS present within the intrauterine environment is unknown, soluble factors (e.g. sCD14) can modulate immune cell responses to LPS at 1000-fold lower concentrations than those observed in amniotic fluid.[42] The LPS concentration that we used in the current studies is in line with other in vitro progenitor cell studies,[12, 13] which have found minimal progenitor cell responses to LPS below 10 μg/ml. In addition, Roy et al.[43] have demonstrated that endotoxin levels range between 1 and 6 μg/g house dust in rural and urban homes. Hence, the dose of LPS used here appears to be in the physiological range of natural LPS exposure. We cannot conclude without addressing a couple of limitations of this study.

BamHI-BamHI fragments hybridized check details with the probe D were ligated into the same site of pUC19, and the resulting plasmids transformed in E. coli H1717. Positive clones were selected by colony blot hybridization with the same probe, and one of the recombinant plasmids, termed pVMB1, was extracted (Fig. 2). The nucleotide sequence of the 5121-bp fragment from pVMB1 was determined by primer

walking. Two entire ORF located divergently were identified; these were named mhuAB (V. mimicus heme utilization). The two other partial genes (orf1 and orf4) were not relevant to iron acquisition or iron-regulated gene expression. As shown in Figure 3a, each of the mhuA and mhuB genes possesses the predicted RBS and promoter elements (−35 and −10). Potential Fur boxes sharing 15/19 and 12/19 base matches with the E. coli consensus Fur box (24) are located in the upstream regions of mhuA and mhuB, respectively, overlapping with the −35 elements. Although the normal initiation codon (AUG) was missing at the predicted start position of mhuB transcript, an alternative initiation codon, UUG (25), was found in seven bases downstream of the RBS. V. mimicus has been reported to produce 77-kDa (IutA) and 80-kDa IROMP, whose N-terminal amino acid sequences have been determined to be EEQTLFDEMV and EQQSQFNEVV,

respectively (9, 10). An amino acid sequence compatible with the latter Selleckchem Nutlin 3a was found in the N-terminal portion of the deduced amino acid sequence of MhuA. To gain better separation of the IROMP, SDS-PAGE was carried out under the conditions shown in Figure 3b. As a result, the IROMP were separated into five protein bands, and the N-terminal amino acid sequences of the smallest band and a second large-molecular weight band corresponded with those of 77-kDa IutA (Fig. 3b, lane 1, open arrowhead) and 80-kDa MhuA (Fig. 3b, lane 1, solid arrowhead), respectively. The functions of the three other IROMP are at present unknown.

The protein product of mhuA shared homology with the heme/hemoglobin receptors of Vibrio species (11, 12, 26), ranging from 33% to 62% identity and from 52% to 80% similarity (Table 2). Selected proteins were aligned with MhuA (Fig. HAS1 4). A probable TonB box (28NEVVVTA34) present in MhuA, which is thought to interact physically with TonB protein, was similar in amino acid sequence to those in the heme/hemoglobin receptors of other Vibrio species (1, 27). Furthermore, MhuA possesses FRTP and NPNL amino acid boxes characteristic of the bacterial heme/hemoglobin receptors (28). However, the conserved histidine residue between FRTP and NPNL boxes (corresponding to His-461 in the Yersinia enterocolitica HemR, a receptor for heme/heme-containing proteins) (28) was not found in MhuA.

For analysis of the expression of intracellular proteins, cells were permeabilized with the Cytofix/Cytoperm kit (BD Pharmingen), according to the manufacturers’ instructions, and incubated with Ab specific for GrzB (FITC-conjugated, BD Pharmingen), IFN-γ and Ki67 (PE conjugated, BD Pharmingen). Finally, paraformaldehyde-fixed

cells were studied by flow cytometry (FacsCanto; BD Biosciences or EPICS-XL, Beckman Coulter). Data were analyzed with FlowJo software. K562 target cells were added to the NK/APC cocultures 48 h after seeding, at an E:T ratio of 10:1. FITC-CD107a Ab (BD Pharmingen) was then added and cells were incubated for 5 h at 37°C. Monensin (Golgi-Stop, BD Pharmingen) Pim inhibitor was added for the last 4 h to prevent CD107a degradation. NK cells were then labeled with PE-Cy5-CD56 Ab (BD Pharmingen) and MΦs were excluded on the basis of CD14 staining (Beckman Coulter). Finally, the expression of CD107a by K562-stimulated NK cells was analyzed by flow cytometry. Supernatants of NK/MΦ cocultures were harvested 72-h postinfection and stored at −80°C.

Commercial ELISA kits were used for IFN-α (Bender MedSystems, Vienna, Austria) and CXCL11 (R&D Systems) detection, following the manufacturers’ instructions. NK, DCs, and MΦs were infected with LASV or MOPV at a MOI of 0.1. In coculture experiments, noninfected NK were added to LASV- or MOPV-infected APCs, at an NK-cell:APC ratio of 5:1. The culture supernatants were harvested and viral titers were

determined and expressed in focus-forming units per mL (FFU/mL) as described Selleck Ipatasertib previously [6, 8]. Twenty-four hours after infection, total RNAs was obtained from a coculture of 6 × 105 cells, using RNeasy kit® and DNA I digestion (both from Qiagen, Hilden, Phosphoglycerate kinase Germany). Reverse transcription was then carried out using SuperScript III® reverse transcriptase, RNaseOUT, first-strand buffer, DTT, oligodT, and dNTP mix (all from Invitrogen). The resulting cDNA was analyzed by real-time PCR (Taqman, Applied Biosystems, Foster Coty, USA) with Taqman Universal master mix and Taqman commercial primers and probes for IFN-γ, GrzB, FasL, and TRAIL (Applied Biosystems). The GAPDH gene was amplified in duplex, with commercial primers and probes (Applied Biosystems) for normalization of the results. Relative mRNA levels were then calculated as 2−ΔCt, Δ cycle threshold (Ct) = gene Ct − GAPDH Ct. Statistical analyses were performed with SigmaStat® software. Student’s t-tests and Mann-Whitney U-tests were carried out to analyze data from flow cytometry experiments, ELISA assays, and qRT-PCR. M. Russier held a fellowship from the Délégation Générale pour l’Armement (G. Vergnaud, the French Army). We thank C. Clegg and G. Lloyd for providing MOPV, and S. Becker for the AV strain of LASV. We also thank T. G. Ksiazek, P. E. Rollin, and P.