At a later stage of the disease,

in 6-7-month-old Cln3(Delta ex1-6) mice, memantine induced a delayed but extended (8 days) improvement of motor skills similarly to that observed https://www.selleckchem.com/products/idasanutlin-rg-7388.html previously with EGIS-8332 treatment. An age-dependent therapeutic effect of memantine implies that the pathomechanism in juvenile Batten disease changes during disease progression. In contrast to acute treatment, repeated administration of memantine or EGIS-8332 (1 mg/kg, once a week for 4 weeks) to 6-month-old Cln3(Delta ex1-6) mice had no beneficial effect on motor coordination. Moreover, repeated treatments did not impact microglial activation or the survival of vulnerable neuron populations. Memantine did not affect astrocytosis in the cortex. EGIS-8332, however, decreased astrocytic activation in the somatosensory barrelfield cortex.

Acute inhibition of NMDA receptors can induce a prolonged therapeutic effect, identifying NMDA receptors as a new therapeutic target for juvenile Batten disease. MEK162 solubility dmso (C) 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Progranulin is a widely expressed, cysteine-rich, secreted glycoprotein originally discovered for its growth factor-like properties. Its subsequent identification as a causative gene for frontotemporal dementia (FTD),

a devastating early-onset neurodegenerative disease, has catalyzed a surge of new discoveries about progranulin function in the brain. More recently, progranulin was recognized as an adipokine involved in diet-induced obesity and insulin

resistance, revealing its metabolic function. We review here progranulin biology in both neurodegenerative and metabolic diseases. In particular, we highlight the growth factor-like, trophic, and antiinflammatory properties of progranulin as potential unifying themes in these seemingly divergent conditions. We also discuss potential therapeutic options for raising progranulin levels to treat progranulin-deficient FTD, as well as the possible consequences of such treatment.”
“Objective: To confirm the association of chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) with high allostatic load (AL) level, examine the association of subsyndromal CFS with AL level, and investigate the effect of depression on these relationships and AICAR mouse the association of AL with functional impairment, fatigue, symptom severity, fatigue duration, and type of CFS onset. AL represents file cumulative physiologic effect of demands to adapt to stress. Methods: Population-based case-control study of 83 persons with CFS 202 Persons With insufficient symptoms or fatigue for CFS (ISF), and 109 well controls living in Georgia. Unconditional logistic regression was used to generate odds ratios (ORs) as measures of the association of AL with CFS. Results: Relative to well controls, each 1-point increase in allostatic load index (ALI) was associated with a 26% increase in likelihood of having CFS (ORadjusted 1.26, 95% Confidence Interval (CI) = 1.00, 1.59).

This may be due to the specific difficulties that

apply to meta-analyses of observational research. The aim of this paper is to provide a nontechnical overview of the principles of meta-analysis applied to observational research. We will highlight general principles of meta-analysis and discuss the major threats to its validity, with an emphasis on its specific merits and pitfalls for psychosomatic research, using several examples. We conclude that meta-analysis is a relatively simple technique, leaving little reason for not routinely applying it when performing a systematic review. An adequately conducted meta-analysis may not only provide a summary estimate of a certain association, but it has additional value in discovering relevant confounders, mediators, and moderators, as well

as identifying areas of research that require more attention.”
“BACKGROUND

Magnetic CP673451 order AZD9291 chemical structure resonance imaging (MRI) is frequently performed during follow-up in patients with known lumbar-disk herniation and persistent symptoms of sciatica. The association between findings on MRI and clinical outcome is controversial.

METHODS

We studied 283 patients in a randomized trial comparing surgery and prolonged conservative care for sciatica and lumbar-disk herniation. Patients underwent MRI at baseline and after 1 year. We used a 4-point scale to assess disk herniation on MRI, ranging from 1 for “”definitely present”" to 4 for “”definitely absent.”" A favorable clinical outcome was defined as complete

or nearly complete disappearance of symptoms at 1 year. We compared proportions of patients with a favorable outcome among those with a definite https://www.selleck.cn/products/beta-nicotinamide-mononucleotide.html absence of disk herniation and those with a definite, probable, or possible presence of disk herniation at 1 year. The area under the receiver-operating-characteristic (ROC) curve was used to assess the prognostic accuracy of the 4-point scores regarding a favorable or unfavorable outcome, with 1 indicating perfect discriminatory value and 0.5 or less indicating no discriminatory value.

RESULTS

At 1 year, 84% of the patients reported having a favorable outcome. Disk herniation was visible in 35% with a favorable outcome and in 33% with an unfavorable outcome (P = 0.70). A favorable outcome was reported in 85% of patients with disk herniation and 83% without disk herniation (P = 0.70). MRI assessment of disk herniation did not distinguish between patients with a favorable outcome and those with an unfavorable outcome (area under ROC curve, 0.48).

CONCLUSIONS

MRI performed at 1-year follow-up in patients who had been treated for sciatica and lumbar-disk herniation did not distinguish between those with a favorable outcome and those with an unfavorable outcome. (Funded by the Netherlands Organization for Health Research and Development and the Hoelen Foundation; Controlled Clinical Trials number, ISRCTN26872154.

hp.) and increased the percentage of open arm entries (10 and 20 mu g, i.hp.). The tested 5-HT6 agonist (5-20 mu g, i.hp.) affected neither distance traveled in the open field test nor motor coordination assessed in the rotarod test.

The results of the present study demonstrate that the 5-HT6 agonist produces antidepressant- and anxiolytic-like effects and that the hippocampus could be one of the brain regions involved in this

action.”
“Fluoxetine (ProzacA (R)) is the most frequently prescribed drug to battle depression in pregnant women, but its safety in the unborn child has not yet been established. Fluoxetine, a selective serotonin reuptake Pictilisib inhibitor, crosses the placenta, leading to increased extracellular serotonin levels and potentially neurodevelopmental changes in the fetus.

The purpose of this study was to elucidate the long-term consequences of prenatal fluoxetine in rats.

Pregnant rats were injected daily with 12 mg/kg fluoxetine or vehicle from gestational day 11 until birth, and the behavior of the offspring was

monitored.

Plasma fluoxetine transfer from mother to pup was 83%, and high levels of fluoxetine (13.0 mu g/g) were detected in the pup brain 5 h after the last injection. Fluoxetine-treated see more dams gave birth to litters 15% smaller than usual and to pups of reduced weight (until postnatal day 7). Furthermore, prenatal fluoxetine exposure significantly increased anxiety in the novelty-suppressed

feeding test, the footshock-induced conditioned place aversion test, and the elevated plus maze test (following footshock pre-exposure) during adulthood, and also significantly decreased components of social play behavior at 4 weeks of age, and a strong tendency for increased self-grooming and making less contact in adults. Behavioral despair, anhedonia, PF-6463922 cell line and sexual behavior were not different between treatment groups. Finally, the hypothermic response to the 5-HT(1A) agonist flesinoxan was observed at a lower dose in prenatally fluoxetine-exposed rats than in controls.

Prenatal fluoxetine exposure in rats leads to detrimental behavioral outcomes in later life, which may partly be due to altered 5-HT(1A) receptor signaling.”
“There is extensive evidence that alcoholism and impulsivity are related, but the direction of causality is unclear.

The aim of the present investigation was to study the effects of chronic ethanol treatment and withdrawal in measures of attention and impulse control in the five-choice serial reaction time task (5CSRTT) in mice.

C57BL/6J mice were trained in the 5CSRTT and then tested in a variable inter-trial interval (vITI) session, which promotes the emergence of premature responses, a measure of poor inhibitory control. Following chronic ethanol treatment, mice were tested in additional vITI sessions-in experiment 1, at 1, 7 and 14 days post-withdrawal, and in experiment 2, at 14, 28, 42 and 56 days post-withdrawal.

Here, we utilized this LP-BM5 retrovirus-induced disease system to test whether modulation of normal immune down-regulatory mechanisms can alter retroviral pathogenesis. Thus, following in vivo depletion of CD4 T regulatory (T(reg)) cells and/or selective interruption of PD-1 negative signaling in the CD8 T-cell compartment, retroviral pathogenesis was significantly decreased, with the combined treatment of CD4 T(reg) Selleckchem BIBF1120 cell depletion and PD-1 blockade working in a synergistic fashion to substantially reduce the induction of MAIDS.”
“In plants the vacuolar functions are the cellular storage of soluble carbohydrates, organic acids, inorganic ions and

toxic compounds. Transporters and channels located in the vacuolar membrane, the tonoplast, are modulated by PTMs to facilitate the optimal functioning of a large number of metabolic pathways. Here we present a phosphoproteomic approach for the identification of in vivo phosphorylation sites of tonoplast (vacuolar membrane) proteins. Highly purified tonoplast and tonoplast-enriched microsomes were isolated from photosynthetically induced barley (Hordeum vulgare) mesophyll protoplasts. Phosphopeptides were enriched by strong cation exchange (SCX) chromatography

followed either by IMAC or titanium dioxide (TiO(2)) affinity chromatography and were subsequently PF-562271 mw analysed using LC-ESI-MS/MS. In total, 65 phospho-peptides of 27 known vacuolar membrane proteins were identified, including the two vacuolar proton pumps, aquaporins, CAX transporters, Na(+)/H(+) antiporters as well as other known vacuolar transporters mediating the transfer of potassium, sugars, sulphate and malate. The present study provides a novel source to further analyse the regulation of tonoplast proteins by protein phosphorylations, especially as most of the identified phosphorylation sites are highly conserved between Hordeum vulgare (Hv) and Arabidopsis thaliana.”
“Efficient cellular delivery is one of the key issues that has hampered the therapeutic

development of novel synthetic biomolecules such as oligonucleotides, peptides and nanoparticles. The highly specialized cellular plasma membrane specifically internalizes compounds through tightly regulated Omipalisib mechanisms. It is possible to exploit these natural mechanisms of cellular uptake with rationally designed reagents. Here, we discuss how thiol groups (-SH) naturally present on the cell surface (exofacial thiols) can be used to enhance cellular association and internalization of various materials bearing thiol-reactive groups in their structure. We propose that such thiol modifications should be considered in future design of synthetic biomolecules for optimized cellular delivery.”
“We investigated the influences of phonological similarity on the time course of spoken word processing in Mandarin Chinese.

These methods have their limitations and there is a need for new rapid, sensitive and reliable assays. Recently, significant advances in the identification selleck of nucleic acid markers and other novel biomarkers and the development of sensor-based platforms have taken place. These novel strategies have shown promise, and their advantages over the conventional tests are discussed.”
“Rationale Serotonin in the dorsal periaqueductal gray (DPAG) through the activation of 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A receptors inhibits escape, a defensive behavior associated with panic attacks. Long-term treatment with antipanic drugs that nonselectively or selectively blocks

the reuptake of serotonin ABT-737 concentration (e.g., imipramine and fluoxetine, respectively) enhances the inhibitory effect on escape caused by intra-DPAG injection of 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A receptor agonists. It has been proposed that these compounds exert their effect on panic by facilitating 5-HT-mediated neurotransmission in the DPAG.

Objectives The objective of this study was to investigate whether facilitation of 5-HT neurotransmission in the DPAG is also

observed after treatment with alprazolam, a pharmacologically distinct antipanic drug that acts primarily as a high potency benzodiazepine receptor agonist.

Materials and methods Male Wistar rats, subchronically (3-6 days) or chronically (14-17 days) treated with alprazolam (2 and 4 mg/kg, i.p.) were intra-DPAG injected with (+/-)-8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino)tetralin hydrobromide (8-OH-DPAT), (+/-)-1-(2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodophenyl) piperazine dihydrochloride (DOI), and midazolam, respectively, 5-HT1A, 5-HT2A/2C, and benzodiazepine receptor agonists. The intensity of electrical current that needed to be applied to the DPAG to evoke escape behavior was measured before and

after the microinjection of these agonists.

Results Intra-DPAG injection of the 5-HT agonists and midazolam increased the escape threshold in all groups of animals tested, indicating a panicolytic-like effect. The inhibitory effect of 8-OH-DPAT and DOI, but not midazolam, was significantly higher in animals check details receiving long-, but not short-term treatment with alprazolam.

Conclusions Alprazolam as antidepressants compounds facilitates 5-HT1A- and 5-HT2A-receptor-mediated neurotransmission in the DPAG, implicating this effect in the mode of action of different classes of antipanic drugs.”
“Background Non-randomised studies of haemopoietic stem-cell transplantation (HSCT) in systemic sclerosis have shown improvements in lung function and skin flexibility but high treatment-related mortality. We aimed to assess safety and efficacy of autologous non-myeloablative HSCT in a phase 2 trial compared with the standard of care, cyclophosphamide.

An additional 443 subjects underwent expression quantitative trait locus (eQTL) analysis. Genome-wide association analysis was performed in EAs to identify significant risk genes. All available markers in the genome-wide significant risk genes were tested in AAs for associations with

AD, and in six HapMap populations and two European samples for associations with gene expression levels. We identified a unique genome-wide significant gene-KIAA0040-that was enriched with many replicable risk SNPs for AD, all of which had significant cis-acting regulatory effects. The distributions of -log(p) values for SNP-disease and SNP-expression associations www.selleckchem.com/products/E7080.html for all markers in the TNN-KIAA0040 region were consistent across EAs, AAs, and five HapMap

populations (0.369 <= r <= 0.824; 2.8 x 10(-9)<= p <= 0.032). The most significant SNPs in these populations were in high LD, concentrating in KIAA0040. Finally, expression of KIAA0040 was significantly (1.2 x 10(-11)<= p <= 1.5 x 10(-6)) associated with the expression of numerous genes in the neurotransmitter systems or metabolic pathways previously associated with AD. We concluded that KIAA0040 might harbor a causal variant for AD and thus might directly contribute to risk for this disorder. KIAA0040 might also contribute to the risk of AD via neurotransmitter systems or metabolic pathways that have previously been implicated Selleck NVP-BSK805 in the pathophysiology of AD. Alternatively, KIAA0040 might regulate the risk via some interactions with flanking genes TNN and TNR. TNN is involved in neurite outgrowth and cell migration in hippocampal explants, and TNR is an extracellular matrix protein expressed primarily in the central nervous system. Neuropsychopharmacology (2012) 37, 557-566; doi:10.1038/npp.2011.229; published online 28 September 2011″
“A simplified prognostic score is presented based on the multivariate analysis of 138 refractory/relapsed

acute myeloid leukaemia (AML) patients (median age 55 years, range: 19-70) receiving a combination of intensive chemotherapy+ Gemtuzumab as salvage regimen. Overall, 2-year event-free survival CH5183284 (EFS) and overall survival (OS) were 29 +/- 4% and 36 +/- 4%, respectively. Disease status (relapse < 12 months, including refractory patients), FLT3-ITD-positive status and high-risk cytogenetics were the three strongest independent adverse prognostic factors for OS and EFS in this series. We then defined three subgroups with striking different outcomes at 2 years: no adverse factor (favourable, N = 36): OS 58%, EFS 45%; one adverse factor (intermediate, N = 54): OS 37%, EFS 31%; two or three adverse factors (poor, N = 43): OS 12%, EFS 12% (P < 10(-4), P = 0.001). This new simplified Leukemia Prognostic Scoring System was then validated on an independent cohort of 111 refractory/relapsed AML patients.

POLST binds and dephosphorylates substrates, such as lipins, that SVST does not.”
“Bacterial pathogens either hide from or modulate the host’s immune response to ensure their survival Photorhabdus is a potent insect pathogenic

bacterium that uses entomopathogenic nematodes as vectors in a system that represents a useful tool for probing the molecular basis of immunity During the course of infection, Photorhabdus multiplies rapidly within the insect, producing a range of toxins that inhibit phagocytosis of the invading bacteria and eventually kill the insect host Photorhabdus bacteria have recently been established as a tool for investigating immune recognition and defense mechanisms in model hosts such as Manduca and Drosophila Such studies pave the way for investigations of LY2109761 solubility dmso gene interactions between pathogen virulence factors and host immune genes, which ultimately could lead to

an understanding of how some Photorhabdus species have made the leap to becoming human pathogens”
“The extent to which higher intakes of linoleic acid (LA) affect risk for coronary heart disease (CHD) is examined by reviewing a wide variety of study types, mostly in humans. In experimental studies, LA has been shown to lower serum levels of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), especially when substituted for saturated fatty acids. Such an effect would be expected to reduce risk for CHD. In observational studies NF-��B inhibitor in which the dietary intake or serum content of LA were either cross-sectionally selleck or prospectively related risk for CHID, higher LA intakes or serum levels have usually been associated with reduced risk. The pooled results from 5 randomized trials where

LA was substituted for saturated fatty acids revealed a significant decrease in risk for CHD events with an LA intake 2-3 times current levels. Thus, current recommendations to consume 5-10% of energy from LA are evidence-based, and should not be reduced. (c) 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“The interferon-inducible antiviral factor BST-2 prevents several enveloped viruses, including HIV, from escaping infected cells. The HIV protein Vpu antagonizes this host defense. Little is known about the expression of BST-2 during HIV infection in vivo and whether it can be modulated to the host’s advantage. We studied the expression of BST-2 on blood cells from HIV-infected patients during the acute and chronic phases of disease as well as after antiretroviral treatment (ART). The expression of BST-2 was increased on mononuclear leukocytes, including CD4-positive T lymphocytes from HIV-positive patients, compared to that on cells of uninfected controls. The expression of BST-2 was highest during acute infection and decreased to levels similar to those of uninfected individuals after ART.

Furthermore, the region upstream of the distal gene 50/RTA transcription initiation site exhibited promoter activity in both permissive NIH 3T12 fibroblasts as well as in the murine macrophage cell line RAW 264.7. In addition, in RAW 264.7 cells the activity of the distal gene 50/RTA promoter was strongly upregulated (>20-fold) by treatment of the cells with lipopolysaccharide. Reverse transcriptase PCR analyses of RNA

prepared from Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus-and Epstein-Barr virus-infected B-cell lines, following induction of virus reactivation, also revealed the presence of gene 50/RTA transcripts initiating upstream of the known transcription initiation site. The latter argues that alternative initiation of gene 50/RTA transcription check details is a strategy conserved among murine and human gammaherpesviruses. Infection of mice with the MHV68 G50pKO demonstrated

the ability of this mutant virus to establish latency in the spleen and peritoneal exudate cells (PECs). However, the G50pKO mutant was unable to reactivate from latently infected splenocytes and also exhibited a significant reactivation defect from latently infected PECs, arguing in favor of a model where the proximal gene 50/RTA promoter plays a critical role in virus reactivation from latency, particularly from B cells. Finally, analyses ZD1839 mouse of viral genome methylation in the regions upstream of the proximal and distal gene 50/RTA transcription initiation sites revealed that the distal promoter is partially

methylated in vivo and heavily methylated in MHV68 latently infected B-cell lines, suggesting that DNA methylation may serve to silence the activity of this promoter during virus latency.”
“Prenatal exposure to nicotine is associated with a variety of adverse outcomes. The present buy YAP-TEAD Inhibitor 1 study investigated the effect of low doses of nicotine during pregnancy on fetal blood gases, cardiovascular system, and cellular activation in the brain. Intravenous administration of nicotine 10 or 25 mu g/kg into ewe did not affect maternal blood gases, blood pressure, and heart rate. Maternal administration of nicotine also had no effect on fetal blood electrolyte concentrations, osmolality levels, and lactic acid levels. However, it significantly reduced fetal blood pO(2) levels and oxygen saturation, increased fetal arterial blood pressure and decreased heart rate in utero. In addition, exposure to low doses of nicotine increased the expression of Fos in the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) and subfornic organ (SFO) in the fetal brain. The data demonstrated that even low doses of nicotine could impact significantly on fetal cardiovascular and central nervous systems, as well as oxygen status, and suggested a toxic risk to fetuses of exposure to low levels nicotine or second-hand smoking during pregnancy. Published by Elsevier Inc.

The present study examined whether this ACC hypoactivity is associated with altered glutamate (Glu), the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system (CNS), which has been recently implicated in drug addiction. Participants comprised 14 chronic cocaine addicts and 14 matched healthy volunteers who were examined using H-1 magnetic resonance spectroscopy at 3 T. A new quantification strategy for echo time (TE)-averaged point-resolved spectroscopy (PRESS) was applied to disentangle relaxation effects from J-evolution

of coupled spin systems such as Glu. The concentrations of Glu as well as N-acetyl aspartate (NAA), total creatine (tCr), choline-containing compounds (tCho), and myo-inositol (ins) were estimated this website from both groups. Glu/tCr was significantly lower SHP099 research buy in chronic cocaine users compared to control subjects and was significantly correlated with years of cocaine use. Glu/tCr was

also positively correlated with NAA/tCr. NAA/tCr significantly decreased with age but was not significantly different between the two groups. These findings suggest a metabolic/neurotransmitter dysregulation associated with cocaine addiction and support a possible therapeutic intervention strategy aimed at normalizing the Glu transmission and function in the treatment of cocaine addiction. Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd.”
“Failure of anterograde transport to distal targets in the brain is a common feature of neurodegenerative diseases. We have demonstrated in rodent models of glaucoma, the most common optic neuropathy, early loss of anterograde transport along the retinal ganglion cell (RGC) projection to the superior colliculus (SC) is retinotopic and followed by a period of persistence of RGC axon terminals and synapses through unknown molecular pathways. Here we use the DBA/2J mouse model

of hereditary glaucoma and an acute rat model to demonstrate that retinotopically focal transport deficits in the SC are accompanied by a spatially coincident increase in brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), especially in hypertrophic astrocytes. These neurochemical changes occur prior to loss of RGC synapses in the VE-822 solubility dmso DBA/2J SC. In contrast to BDNF protein, levels of Bdnf mRNA decreased with transport failure, even as mRNA encoding synaptic structures remained unchanged. In situ hybridization signal for Bdnf mRNA was the strongest in SC neurons, and labeling for the immature precursor pro-BDNF was very limited. Subcellular fractionation of SC indicated that membrane-bound BDNF decreased with age in the DBA/2J, while BDNF released from vesicles remained high. These results suggest that in response to diminished axonal function, activated astrocytes in the brain may sequester mature BDNF released from target neurons to counter stressors that otherwise would challenge survival of projection synapses. (C) 2012 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Our data demonstrated that NGF could induce the nuclear exclusion of Fox01-GFP and Fox03a-GFP in PC12 cells with different properties, but had no effect on Fox06-GFP’s nuclear localization and Fox06-GFP showed an exclusive nuclear localization. Translocation of Fox01 and Fox03a could be blocked by K252a and LY294002 but not by PD98059. Moreover, Fox03a returned to cytoplasm at a higher rate than Selleck AZD9291 Fox01 after NGF stimulation and it was more sensitive than Fox01 to NGF stimulation. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“A rapid PCR assay for detection of

white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) was developed based on the nested PCR procedure described by Lo et al. (1996) and outlined as the recommended PCR diagnostic assay in the Manual of Diagnostic Tests for Aquatic Animals published by the Office of International Epizootics (OIE, 2009). The optimized procedure incorporated the second step primers used in the nested WSSV PCR. By adjusting

the annealing temperature and shortening the cycling times, this modified assay is substantially faster and as sensitive as the recommended OIE protocol. The modified PCR test was compared directly to the two-step nested PCR protocol and a modified nested procedure. The sensitivity of the published assay was determined by template dilutions of semi-purified WSSV virions that had been quantitated using real-time PCR for detection of WSSV. Various isolates Cell Cycle inhibitor were tested using the modified procedure, to ensure that the assay was able to detect WSSV from different geographical locations. (C) 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.”
“Although theta-gamma coupling is known to others reflect memory-related processes, it is unclear whether it has a relationship with memory ability. Here, we investigated

the relationship between theta phase and gamma power coupling (TGC) and scores obtained regarding memory tasks. Thirty-one older subjects performed a spatial delayed match-to-sample task (SDMST) during EEG recording. We also evaluated performance on the delayed figure recall (DFR) and delayed verbal recall (DVR) tasks regarding memory ability. Partial correlation analysis (controlled for age) demonstrated that increases in TGC in the parietal area were significantly correlated with increases in the DFR scores obtained. In addition, TGC was significantly correlated with the accuracy rate of the SDMST. Our results indicate that TGC could be a useful biophysiological marker of memory ability. Crown Copyright (C) 2011 Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Vaccinia virus (VacV) enters mammalian cells, replicates extranuclearly, and produces virions that move to the cell surface along microtubules, fuse with the plasma membrane, and move from infected cells toward apposing cells on actin-filled membranous protrusions or actin tails. To form actin tails, cell-associated enveloped virions (CEV) require Abl and Src family tyrosine kinases.