1 and 1.0 mM were determined in oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions under chlorophyll photosensitization. selleck compound Headspace oxygen depletion,

lipid hydroperoxides, and headspace volatile analyses were conducted to determine the oxidative stability of O/W emulsions. For 32 h visible light irradiation, depleted headspace oxygen content in O/W emulsions were in the order of samples containing Trolox, ascorbic acid, ascorbyl palmitate, alpha-tocopherol, without antioxidants under light, and samples in the dark, which implies that all the added compounds acted prooxidant. These prooxidative properties of added compounds can be observed in the results of lipid hydroperoxides and headspace volatiles. Samples containing ascorbic acid and ascorbyl palmitate retained higher chlorophyll content than those SC79 cell line containing Trolox up to 16 h. Increases of concentration of Trolox, ascorbic acid, and ascorbyl palmitate from 0.1 to 1.0 mM increased

the lipid oxidation products whereas alpha-tocopherol decreased the degree of lipid oxidation implying alpha-tocopherol may not share the same prooxidant mechanisms compared to other compounds in chlorophyll sensitized O/W emulsions.”
“The dynamics of paraffin deposit formation on different surfaces was analyzed based on scaling laws. Carbon-based films were deposited onto silicon (Si) and stainless steel substrates from methane (CH(4)) gas using radio frequency plasma enhanced chemical vapor VX-770 deposition. The different substrates were characterized with respect to their surface energy by contact angle measurements, surface roughness, and morphology. Paraffin thin films were obtained by the casting technique and

were subsequently characterized by an atomic force microscope in noncontact mode. The results indicate that the morphology of paraffin deposits is strongly influenced by substrates used. Scaling laws analysis for coated substrates present two distinct dynamics: a local roughness exponent (alpha(local)) associated to short-range surface correlations and a global roughness exponent (alpha(global)) associated to long-range surface correlations. The local dynamics is described by the Wolf-Villain model, and a global dynamics is described by the Kardar-Parisi-Zhang model. A local correlation length (L(local)) defines the transition between the local and global dynamics with L(local) approximately 700 nm in accordance with the spacing of planes measured from atomic force micrographs. For uncoated substrates, the growth dynamics is related to Edwards-Wilkinson model.”
“Almost half of the human genome is derived from exogenous genetic invaders, most of them related to retroviruses. This is the consequence of longstanding interactions between retroelements and higher organisms, governed by a delicate equilibrium between virus-based evolutionary forces and control by host defense mechanisms.

“
“The effects of particle size and parent polymer characteristics on the mechanical properties, gel fraction, and swelling index of self-crosslinkable poly(n-butyl methacrylate-co-N-methylolacrylamide) films made by two-stage emulsion or microemulsion polymerization in the presence of variable amounts of the chain transfer agent, n-butyl mercaptan, are reported here. In films prepared with latexes made by microemulsion polymerization, the crosslinking degree increased greatly on curing; by contrast, in those made by emulsion polymerization, the crosslinking degree practically did not increase after curing. GDC-0449 cell line Stress-strain tests of uncured and cured films indicate that microemulsion-made

films are tougher than the emulsion-made films. (c) 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 121: 1669-1674, 2011″
“In this study, hot melt extrusion (HME) and KinetiSolA (R) Dispersing (KSD) were utilized to prepare dissolution-enhanced solid dispersions of Roche Research Compound A (ROA), a BCS class II drug. Preformulation characterization studies showed that ROA was Epigenetics inhibitor chemically unstable at elevated temperatures and acidic pH values. EudragitA (R) L100-55 and AQOATA (R) LF (HPMCAS) were evaluated as carrier polymers. Dispersions were characterized for ROA recovery, crystallinity, homogeneity, and non-sink dissolution. EudragitA

(R) L100-55 dispersions prepared by HME required the use of micronized ROA and reduced residence times selleck in order to become substantially amorphous. Compositions containing HPMCAS were also prepared by HME, but an amorphous dispersion could not be obtained. All HME compositions contained ROA-related impurities. KSD was investigated as a method to reduce the decomposition of ROA while rendering compositions amorphous. Substantially amorphous, plasticizer free compositions were processed successfully by KSD with significantly

higher ROA recovery values and amorphous character than those achieved by HME. A near-infrared chemical imaging analysis was conducted on the solid dispersions as a measure of homogeneity. A statistical analysis showed similar levels of homogeneity in compositions containing EudragitA (R) L100-55, while differences were observed in those containing HMPCAS. Non-sink dissolution analysis of all compositions showed rapid supersaturation after pH adjustment to approximately two to three times the equilibrium solubility of ROA, which was maintained for at least 24 h. The results of the study demonstrated that KSD is an effective method of forming dissolution-enhanced amorphous solid solutions in cases where HME is not a feasible technique.”
“The approach to the diagnosis of acute pulmonary embolism (PE) is under constant revision with advances in technology, noninvasive approaches, and increasing awareness of the risks of ionizing radiation.

(C) 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.”
“In the paper, a jump-noise process is introduced in magnetization dynamics equations in order to account

for random thermal effects. It is demonstrated that in the case of small noise, Landau-Lifshitz and Gilbert damping terms emerge as average effects caused by the jump-noise process. This approach leads to simple formulas for the damping constant in terms of the scattering rate of the jump-noise process. These formulas also reveal the dependence of the damping constant on magnetization. The analysis of random switching of magnetization caused by the jump-noise process is presented. It is shown that the switching rate at very low

learn more temperatures may appreciably deviate from the predictions of thermal activation theory, which is consistent with experimental observations of low temperature switchings and is usually attributed to the phenomenon of “”macroscopic tunneling”" of magnetization. (C) 2011 American Institute of Physics. [doi:10.1063/1.3536657]“
“INTRODUCTION: To control healthcare costs, Federal and Cantonal states have introduced policies to limit expenses selleck and the number of practising physicians. It is unclear to date whether these policies have had a real impact on anaesthetists in Switzerland. The aim of the current study was to assess the density, characteristics and satisfaction of anaesthetists in Latin Switzerland and to compare the results with data collected before the introduction of cost containment policies in 2002.

METHOD: We performed a cross-sectional study between March and July 2009 and included all practicing anaesthetists in Latin Switzerland. A questionnaire consisting of 103 items analysing demographics, activity and job satisfaction

BTK signaling pathway inhibitors was used. The results were analysed and compared to a previous survey conducted in 2002.

RESULTS: Compared to 2002, there was an overall 12% increase in the number of practising anaesthetists who were older and more often females (42% versus 35% in 2002 (p = 0.06)). The number of non-Swiss anaesthetists significantly increased to 19% compared to 11% in 2002 (p <0.05). In contrast, working hours in public hospitals decreased from 59 to 53 hours/week (p <0.001). The majority of anaesthetists considered that their overall personal situation was better than in the previous 10 years and 87.7% considered that these measures had no impact on their future plans.

CONCLUSIONS: Implicit rationing policies introduced in Switzerland to limit healthcare costs and the number of physicians has had no impact on anaesthetists’ workforce density, working conditions and overall satisfaction in Latin Switzerland. This opens the question of the real usefulness of these policies, at least for anaesthetists.

IL-17 blockade has beneficial effects on murine arthritis, a fact that points to the direction of this cytokine as a potential therapeutic target in human inflammatory arthritides as well.

Conclusions: The available data suggest that mediators 3-deazaneplanocin A in these 2 biologic systems are critical in joint remodeling and may be appropriate targets in the treatment of bone and joint abnormalities that characterize a variety of inflammatory arthritides and bone diseases. (C) 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Semin Arthritis Rheum 39:369-383″
“Numerical abnormalities

of sex chromosomes are seen approximately 1 in 400 live births. Pentasomy X is a very rare chromosomal abnormality and it is defined as presence of five X chromosomes instead of two. Prenatal sonographic features have rarely been described in the literature before. Here we present a non-immune fetal hydrops diagnosed during the 17th week of gestation. Ultrasonographic examination revealed subcutaneous edema, pleural effusion and ascites, and also clinodactyly of the fifth fingers of both hands. The fetal karyotype was assessed

as 49,XXXXX (pentasomy X) in two different culture flasks. Hydropic signs regressed at 21 weeks’ gestation. Prenatal diagnosis may not be possible usually for this rare chromosomal abnormality. Every anomaly detected prenatally, such as transient hydrops, may help us to diagnose pentasomy X.”
“Objectives: Psoriatic arthritis (PsA) is buy BMS-777607 a seronegative inflammatory arthritis found in up to 5 to 42% of

patients with psoriasis. As current instruments do not fully capture health-related quality of life ATM/ATR cancer (HR-QOL) in PsA from the patient’s perspective, we piloted a novel application of “”willingness-to-pay”" (WTP) as a Patient Reported Outcome to measure the relative impact of PsA in 8 domains of HR-QOL.

Methods: Fifty-nine PsA patients were interviewed on 8 WTP HR-QOL domains (physical, emotional, sleep, work, social, self-care, intimacy, and concentration). Participants were asked to rank the 8 domains of health in order of HR-QOL impact. In each domain, participants were asked whether PsA affected that domain, whether they were willing to pay for a cure in that domain, and the amount they were willing to pay. Median WTP amounts were compared with the proportion of participants affected by and willing to pay in each domain. Responses in US dollars were interpreted as strength of preference rather than absolute monetary values.

Results: The majority of participants were white (98%), >= 45 years of age (70%), insured (98%), and earned >$65,000/yr (66%). The physical domain was most affected by PsA; intimacy and concentration were ranked lowest. Participants reported a wide range of WTP amounts ($0 to $1,000,000), and median WTP amounts were highest in the physical, work, sleep, and self-care domains. Related domains elicited median WTP amounts that were highly correlated.

A theoretical model developed earlier was successfully applied to qualitatively interpret the experimental data. (C) 2011 American Institute of Physics. [doi: 10.1063/1.3626458]“
“Uterine and cervical prolapse is a rare selleck chemical occurrence in pregnancy. It can be associated with minor cervical desiccation and ulceration to devastating maternal fatalities. The scope of complications includes urinary retention, preterm labor, premature delivery, fetal demise, maternal sepsis,

and urinary retention.

We present a case of a lady, who developed uterine and cervical prolapse during pregnancy and the issues surrounding her antenatal and intrapartum management.

This case report highlights the effectiveness of a Gellhorn pessary for uterine prolapse in pregnancy.”
“Purpose: The aim of this study was to evaluate a modified Surgical technique for premaxilla repositioning with concomitant autogenous bone

grafting in bilateral trans-foramen cleft lip and palate patients.

Patients and Methods: The Study included 50 bilateral trans-foramen cleft lip and palate patients. Bone graft was harvested from the mandibular symphysis in 24 patients. Whenever check details more grafting was necessary, the iliac crest bone was used as the donor site (26 patients). The premaxilla was displaced by rupturing the bone and the palatine mucosa, and repositioned in a more adequate position using a Surgical guide. The premaxilla and the grafts were fixed with miniplates and screws or screws only. The Surgical guide was kept in place for 2 months, whereas the miniplates and screws were removed after 6 months, together with the complete bilateral Lip and nose repair. Follow-tip examinations were performed at 3, 6, and 12 months by means of periapical and occlusal radiographs, and by clinical examination. Thereafter, the patients were buy Cyclosporin A referred for completion of the orthodontic

treatment.

Results: Over-all, in 48 cases (96%) the treatment achieved total graft integration, with complete closure of the bucconasal and palatal fistulas, and premaxilla stability (either at first surgery or after reoperation). In the remaining 2 patients (4%), the treatment failed, due to necrosis of the premaxilla.

Conclusions: The procedure is complex and involves risk. However, the patient’s social inclusion, especially at the addressed age group, is the best benefit achieved. (C) 2009 American Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons”
“Background: Twenty-four-hour urine collections are considered the optimal method for sodium intake assessment. Whether a diagnosis of heart failure (HF) or the use of loop diuretic (LD) therapy for HF compromises the validity of 24-h urine collections as a surrogate marker for sodium intake is unknown.

“Recent experimental results regarding the transport properties of ZnO/MgZnO heterostructures with very high mobility (mu <= 1.8 x 10(5)cm(2)/Vs) are analyzed. In the electron density range of the experiment, the two-dimensional electron gas in ZnO/MgZnO heterostructures is strongly correlated with a large Wigner-Seitz parameter 4 < r(s)< 12. We demonstrate that many-body effects (exchange and correlation), described by a local-field correction, are very large in this density range. They reduce the buy GDC-0449 screening properties of the two-dimensional electron gas and strongly reduce the transport scattering time and the single-particle relaxation

time at low electron densities. For such samples, we also discuss the peak mobility, the metal-insulator transition, and the magnetoresistance in a parallel magnetic field. (C) 2011 American JNJ-64619178 Institute of Physics. [doi: 10.1063/1.3622310]“
“Three studies were conducted

to evaluate the effects of supplemental fat and salt (sodium chloride) on DMI, daily water intake (DWI), body temperature, and respiration rate (RR) in Bos taurus beef cattle. In Exp. 1 and 2, whole soybeans (SB) were used as the supplemental fat source. In Exp. 3, palm kernel meal and tallow were used. Experiment 1 (winter) and Exp. 2 (summer) were undertaken in an outside feedlot. Experiment 3 was conducted in a climate-controlled facility (mean ambient temperature = 29.9 degrees C). In Exp. 1, three diets, 1) control; 2) salt (control + 1% sodium chloride); and 3) salt-SB (control + 5% SB + 1% sodium chloride), were fed to 144 cattle (BW = 327.7 kg), using a replicated 3 x 3 Latin square design. In Exp. 2, 168 steers (BW = 334.1 kg) were used. In Exp. 2, the same dietary treatments were used as in Exp. 1, and a 5% SB dietary treatment was included in an incomplete 3 x 4 Latin square design. In Exp. 3, three diets, 1) control; 2) salt (control + 0.92% NaCl); and 3) salt-fat (control + 3.2% added fat + 0.92% NaCl) were fed to 12 steers (BW = 602 kg) in a replicated Latin square design. In Exp. 1, cattle fed the salt-SB diet had

elevated (P < 0.05) tympanic temperature (TT; 38.83 Fer-1 cell line degrees C) compared with cattle fed the control (38.56 degrees C) or salt (38.50 degrees C) diet. In Exp. 2, cattle fed the salt and salt-SB diets had less (P < 0.05) DMI and greater (P < 0.05) DWI than cattle in the control and SB treatments. Cattle fed the salt-SB diet had the greatest (P < 0.05) TT (38.89 degrees C). Those fed only the salt diet or only the SB diet had the least (P < 0.05) TT, at 38.72 and 38.78 degrees C, respectively. Under hot conditions (Exp. 3), DMI of steers fed the salt and salt-fat diets declined by approximately 40% compared with only 24% for the control cattle. During hot conditions, DWI was greatest (P < 0.05) for steers on the salt-fat diet. These steers also had the greatest (P < 0.05) mean rectal temperature (40.03 +/- 0.1 degrees C) and RR (112.7 +/- 1.7 breaths/min).

Results were verified by finite element analysis, which was additionally implemented for the solution of steady-periodic and transient thermal, as well as steady thermoelastic problems. These theoretical investigations, coupled with our experimental results, reveal that the complex dynamics underpinning optical excitation mechanisms consists of two disparate spatial regimes. When the excitation source is focused in close proximity to the structure the response is primarily thermal. We show that as the source is placed farther from the clamped end of the structure, the thermal response

progressively fades out, indicating the possibility of mechanical wave propagation. Understanding the excitation mechanisms may be useful for applications this website including selleck inhibitor compact integration of nanophotonic elements with functionalized nanomechanical sensors for ultrasensitive biochemical analysis.”
“The rock pigeon (Columba livia), or Rock dove, is a member of the bird family Columbidae. We mapped the complete mitochondrial genome of the Rock pigeon. The mitochondrial genome of this species is a circular molecule of 17,229 bp in length, encoding a standard set of 13 protein-coding genes, two

ribosomal RNA genes, and 22 transfer RNA genes, plus a putative control region, demonstrating a structure very similar to that of other birds. As found in other vertebrates, most of these genes are coded on the H-strand, except for NADH dehydrogenase subunit 6 (nad6) and eight tRNA genes (Gln, Ala, Asn, Cys, Tyr, Ser(UCN), Pro, Vorinostat purchase Glu). The AT skew and GC skew of the whole genome, protein-coding genes, tRNA, rRNA, and the control region were calculated for the complete mitochondrial genomes of 30 avian species, representing 29 orders. All protein-coding genes initiated with ATG, except for cox1 and nad5, which began with GTG. One extra nucleotide

‘C’ was present in NADH dehydrogenase subunit 3 (nad3). All tRNA gene sequences have the potential to fold into typical cloverleaf secondary structures. Within the control region, conserved sequences were identified in three domains. Although the conserved blocks, such as ETAS1, ETAS2, CSB1, CSB1-like, and boxes C, D, E, and F, are readily identifiable in the C. livia control region, the typical origin of H-strand replication (O(H)), CSB2 and CSB3 could not be detected. These results provide basic information for phylogenetic analyses of birds, especially Columbiformes species.”
“Changes in synaptic efficacy are believed to form the cellular basis for memory. Protein synthesis in dendrites is needed to consolidate long-term synaptic changes. Many signals converge to regulate dendritic protein synthesis, including synaptic and cellular activity, and growth factors. The coordination of these multiple inputs is especially intriguing because the synthetic and control pathways themselves are among the synthesized proteins. We have modeled this system to study its molecular logic and to understand how runaway feedback is avoided.

The full phenotypic spectrum of this clinically and genetically heterogeneous syndrome Alpelisib mouse is yet to be delineated. Presented herein is a boy 2 years and 5 months old, with Seckel

syndrome, born to second-degree consanguineous Muslim parents. In addition to the classic phenotype of the disorder, this patient had both, an open and a closed lip schizencephaly detected on cranial computed tomography (CT) scan. To our knowledge, the association of schizencephaly and Seckel syndrome is not described previously in the English language literature. In addition, presented briefly is a review of the anatomical cerebral cortical malformations associated with this syndrome.”
“InN films were grown on MgO substrates with a beta-GaN buffer layer using the gas source molecular beam epitaxy technique. selleck compound Initially, at typical growth rates from 0.09 to 0.28 ML/sec

and at 500 degrees C substrate temperature, the growth was performed in a layer by layer way as revealed by in situ reflection high-energy electron diffraction (RHEED). In all samples studied, a critical thickness of similar to 5 ML in InN pseudomorphic layer was measured with a frame by frame analysis of RHEED patterns recorded on video. After reaching critical thickness, the InN films undergo a relaxation process, going from two-dimensional growth to three-dimensional, as evidenced by the transformation of the RHEED patterns that change from streaky to spotty. Depending on the In cell temperature, either nanocolumnar InN or flat cubic final films are grown, as can be corroborated by scanning electron microscopy. The experimental critical thickness (h(c)) value of 5 ML is compared to values calculated from different critical thickness models. (C) 2010 American Institute of Physics. [doi: 10.1063/1.3309757]“
“Drugs which antagonize tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) are known to increase the risk of tuberculosis. We aimed to evaluate the risk of tuberculosis in patients treated with

anti-TNF-alpha, in Turkey. Two hundred and forty patients receiving anti-TNF-alpha, from December 2005 to December 2007, were included in the study. find more All participants provided a history and underwent a physical examination, a chest X-ray, and a tuberculin skin test. Isoniazid treatment was initiated in those patients with a latent infection, and they were followed up at 2-month intervals. A Bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG) scar was present in 184 patients (77.6%). The mean tuberculin skin test induration of patients on admission was 10.7 +/- 7.0 mm. Male gender and the presence of a BCG scar were predictors of a higher tuberculin skin test result (P < 0.05), while there was no significant effect of age on the tuberculin skin test (P > 0.05). Of the 240 subjects, 229 (95.4%) received methotrexate or corticosteroid treatment prior to anti-TNF-alpha therapy.

001), and when both abnormalities were present (P = 0.007).

ROC statistic showed 73 % sensitivity and 74 % specificity for detection of partial tears for peroneal tubercle size a parts per thousand yen4.3 mm.

Our study shows a significantly larger peroneal tubercle in subjects with inframalleolar peroneal tendon abnormalities. A cut-off of 4.3 mm showed good sensitivity and specificity for the presence of partial tears of the peroneal tendon.”
“Pathologic fractures may occur when a bone has been weakened by an underlying pathologic process. The treatment depends on the etiology. We report on a patient with pathologic fracture in the jaw caused by unicystic ameloblastoma. The lesion was subjected to marsupialization, and the size of the radiolucent lesion decreased. GKT137831 mouse The fracture was consolidated by bone regeneration. For the remaining tumor, a secondary surgery was performed with enucleation followed by spray cryosurgery using a combination of propane, butane, and isobutane gases. The patient showed no signs of recurrence

during the 3-year period after the second surgical procedure.”
“OBJECTIVE: To use decision modeling to compare the costs associated with robotic, laparoscopic, and open hysterectomy for the treatment of endometrial cancer.

METHODS: Three separate models were used, each with sensitivity analysis: 1) a societal perspective model, which included inpatient hospital costs, robotic expenses, and lost wages and caregiver costs; 2) a hospital ABT-263 manufacturer perspective

plus robot costs model, which was identical to the societal perspective model but excluded lost wages and caregiver costs; and 3) a hospital perspective without robot costs model, which was identical to the hospital perspective plus robot costs model except that it excluded initial cost of the robot.

RESULTS: The societal perspective model predicted laparoscopy ($10,128) as the least expensive approach followed by robotic and check details ($11,476) and open hysterectomy ($12,847). Societal perspective model sensitivity analyses predicted robotic hysterectomy to be least expensive when robotic disposable equipment cost less than $1,046 per case (baseline cost $2,394). In the hospital perspective plus robot costs model, laparoscopy was least expensive ($6,581) followed by open ($7,009) and robotic hysterectomy ($8,770); however, if hospital stay after open surgery was less than 2.9 days, open hysterectomy was least expensive. In the hospital perspective without robot costs model, laparoscopy remained least expensive, but robotic surgery became least expensive if the cost of robotic disposable equipment was reduced to less than $1,496 per case.

CONCLUSION: Laparoscopy is the least expensive surgical approach for the treatment of endometrial cancer. Robotic is less costly than abdominal hysterectomy when the societal costs associated with recovery time are accounted for and is most economically attractive if disposable equipment costs can be minimized.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the protective effect of creatine against 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-induced cell death in neuroblastoma

SH-SY5Y cells and the possible intracellular signaling pathways involved in such effect. Exposure of SH-SY5Y cells to 100-300 mu M of 6-OHDA for 24 h caused a significant concentration-dependent cell death measured as a diminution of 3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5-diphenyl-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) reduction and as an increase in the extracellular release of lactate dehydrogenase. SH-SY5Y cells incubated for 24 or 48 h with SB203580 creatine (10-5000 mu M) was not cytotoxic. However, pre and co-treatment with creatine (0.3-1000 mu M) for 24 h reduced 6-OHDA-induced toxicity. The protective effect afforded by creatine against 6-OHDA-induced toxicity was reversed by inhibitors of different protein kinases, i.e. phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase (PI3K) (LY294002), Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) (KN-93), protein kinase A (H-89),

mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 1/2 (MEK1/2) (PD98059) and protein kinase C (PKC) (chelerythrine). Furthermore, creatine prevented the 6-OHDA-induced dephosphorylation of glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta (GSK-3 beta) at the serine 9 residue. In conclusion, the results of this study show that creatine can protect against 6-OHDA-induced toxicity and its protective mechanism is related to a signaling pathway that involves PI3K, PKC, PKA, CaMKII, MEK1/2 and GSK-3 beta. (C) 2013 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Neurologic disease is a major cause of disability in resource-poor countries Omipalisib price and a substantial portion of this disease is due to infections of the CNS. A wide variety of emerging and re-emerging www.selleck.cn/products/BMS-777607.html viruses contribute to

this disease burden. New emerging infections are commonly due to RNA viruses that have expanded their geographic range, spread from animal reservoirs or acquired new neurovirulence properties. Mosquito-borne viruses with expanding ranges include West Nile virus, Japanese encephalitis virus and Chikungunya virus. Zoonotic viruses that have recently crossed into humans to cause neurologic disease include the bat henipaviruses Nipah and Hendra, as well as the primate-derived human immunodeficiency virus. Viruses adapt to new hosts, or to cause more severe disease, by changing their genomes through reassortment (e.g. influenza virus), mutation (essentially all RNA viruses) and recombination (e.g. vaccine strains of poliovirus). Viruses that appear to have recently become more neurovirulent include West Nile virus, enterovirus 71 and possibly Chikungunya virus. In addition to these newer challenges, rabies, polio and measles all remain important causes of neurologic disease despite good vaccines and global efforts toward control. Control of human rabies depends on elimination of rabies in domestic dogs through regular vaccination.